Abstract:
The cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) signaling pathway plays a crucial role in the regulation of various (patho)physiological processes, including cardiovascular diseases and cancer. The pharmacological targeting of this pathway has proven successful in managing conditions such as erectile dysfunction, heart failure, and pulmonary hypertension. Increasing evidence suggests that cGMP-modulating drugs may also have potential for cancer treatment. The aim of this work was to gain further insights into the role of the cGMP signaling pathway in the development and progression of breast cancer and to explore its potential as a therapeutic target for this disease. In the present study, expression, activity, and the functional relevance of the cGMP signaling pathway were investigated in breast tumors, both in cancer cells and in stromal cells. To achieve our goals, we employed a combination of in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo methods. One central tool was the Förster/fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based cGMP biosensor cGi500, which enabled us to monitor the cGMP concentration in real-time in live cells and tissues after stimulation of the cGMP-generating guanylyl cyclases (GC). Specifically, we stimulated the nitric oxide (NO)-dependent GC (NO-GC), GC-A, and GC-B with their ligands NO, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and C type natriuretic peptide (CNP), respectively. This innovative approach allowed us to determine the spatiotemporal profile of cGMP signals in various tumor and stromal cells within breast cancer tissue. Utilizing the cGMP biosensor as well as other biochemical and immunohistochemical assays, we analyzed the presence and activity of various cGMP pathways in murine and human breast cancer tissues. Using cGMP imaging, we were also able to examine clinically used NO GC stimulators such as riociguat and vericiguat, thus, providing valuable insights in which cells these drugs exert their effects. The analysis of different breast cancer cell lines revealed a tremendous heterogeneity in terms of cGMP pathway expression and activity. Interestingly, these experiments revealed the presence of the CNP/cGMP and NO/cGMP pathway particularly in cells belonging to the triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) subtypes. These results were corroborated by demonstrating expression of NO-GC also in TNBC patient-derived organoids and biopsies. Riociguat potentiated the NO induced cGMP production in cultured breast cancer cells and might decrease apoptotic events in TNBC patient-derived organoids. Regardless of breast cancer subtype, NO-GC was strongly expressed together with the cGMP dependent protein kinase I (cGKI) in stromal cells of the tumor microenvironment (TME). These findings moved our interest toward understanding how modulation of the cGMP pathway in stromal cells could potentially modify the TME and, thereby, affect breast cancer development and progression. To study cGMP signaling specifically in the TME without potential effects derived from tumor cells, we used a preclinical mouse model with cGMP-insensitive breast cancer cells. For this model, we chose the murine E0771 cell line, which showed no detectable expression or activity of cGMP pathway components. The murine E0771 cells were implanted into the 3rd mammary fat pad of female mice providing an immunocompetent model to study breast cancer and its TME. Using this model in combination with the cGMP biosensor, we found active ANP/cGMP and NO/cGMP pathways associated with the tumor vasculature. More specifically, upon ex vivo stimulation of tumor slices with an NO-donor, pericytes associated with the tumor vessels strongly increased their cGMP concentration The NO induced cGMP signal was potentiated when vericiguat was co-applied. Interestingly, animals treated with vericiguat developed significantly larger breast tumors as compared to the non-treated control group, presumably due to changes in tumor vascularization. This study is the first to demonstrate a growth-enhancing effect of vericiguat on breast cancer. Taken together, the present work has revealed heterogeneous expression of various cGMP signaling pathways in breast cancer cells and strong activity of the NO/cGMP pathway in pericytes of the tumor vasculature. Among breast cancer cells, the cGMP pathway appears to be primarily expressed in the TNBC subtype, although the functional relevance of cGMP in these tumor cells remains unclear. An important finding of this study is that NO-GC and cGKI are expressed in pericytes of the TME in breast cancer patients regardless of tumor subtype. These results were further supported by our preclinical mouse model, where a functional NO/cGMP pathway was identified in perivascular cells within the TME. The NO-GC stimulating drug vericiguat amplified NO-induced cGMP production in pericytes associated with tumor vessels ex vivo and promoted breast cancer growth in vivo. The significant increase in breast tumor growth caused by vericiguat in mice, as demonstrated in this study, should be considered for breast cancer patients undergoing vericiguat treatment for cardiovascular disease. In addition, the findings of the present study underscore the potential of modulating the cGMP pathway as a strategy to advance and refine breast cancer therapies.